Sahasi, G., Mohan, D., and Kacker, C. Effectiveness of yogic techniques in the management of anxiety. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies 5(1), 51-55. 3-1989.

Abstract: Evaluated the efficacy of selected yoga practices (Group 1, N = 38) as compared with drug (diazepam) therapy (Group 2, N = 53) in anxiety-neurotic outpatients (aged 18-47 yrs). Ss were administered a battery of tests pre- and post-treatment. Data indicated a significant rate of improvement in Group 1 Ss who completed the prescribed length (5 days/wk for 3 months) of yoga practices as compared with Group 2 Ss. At least 6.7% of Group 1 Ss were reported to be completely asymptomatic as compared with none of the Group 2 Ss.

Platania-Solazzo, A., Field, T. M., Blank, J., Seligman, F., Kuhn, C., Schanberg, S., and Saab, P. Relaxation therapy reduces anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric patients. Acta Paedopsychiatrica 55(2), 115-120. 1992.

Abstract: The immediate effects of relaxation therapy (RT) were assessed in 40 hospitalized children and adolescents with diagnoses of adjustment disorder and depression. These effects were assessed using a within subjects pre-test/post-test design and by comparison with a control group of 20 depressed and adjustment disorder patients who watched a 1-h relaxing videotape. The 1-h RT class consisted of yoga exercise, a brief massage and progressive muscle relaxation. Decreases were noted in both self-reported anxiety and in anxious behavior and fidgeting as well as increases in positive affect in the RT but not the video group. In addition, adjustment disorder patients and a third of the depressed patients showed decreases in cortisol levels following RT, while no changes were noted in the video group. Thus, both diagnostic groups appeared to benefit from the RT class.

Miller, J. J., Fletcher, K., and Kabat-Zinn, J. Three-year follow-up and clinical implications of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention in the treatment of anxiety disorders. General Hospital Psychiatry 17(3), 192-200. 5-1995.

Abstract: A previous study of 22 medical patients with DSM-III-R-defined anxiety disorders showed clinically and statistically significant improvements in subjective and objective symptoms of anxiety and panic following an 8-week outpatient physician-referred group stress reduction intervention based on mindfulness meditation. Twenty subjects demonstrated significant reductions in Hamilton and Beck Anxiety and Depression scores post intervention and at 3-month follow-up. In this study, 3-year follow-up data were obtained and analyzed on 18 of the original 22 subjects to probe long-term effects. Repeated measures analysis showed maintenance of the gains obtained in the original study on the Hamilton [F(2,32) = 13.22; p < 0.001] and Beck [F(2,32) = 9.83; p < 0.001] anxiety scales as well as on their respective depression scales, on the Hamilton panic score, the number and severity of panic attacks, and on the Mobility Index-Accompanied and the Fear Survey. A 3-year follow-up comparison of this cohort with a larger group of subjects from the intervention who had met criteria for screening for the original study suggests generalizability of the results obtained with the smaller, more intensively studied cohort. Ongoing compliance with the meditation practice was also demonstrated in the majority of subjects at 3 years. We conclude that an intensive but time-limited group stress reduction intervention based on mindfulness meditation can have long-term beneficial effects in the treatment of people diagnosed with anxiety disorders.

Garfinkel, M. S., Schumacher, H. R. Jr, Husain, A., Levy, M., and Reshetar, R. A. Evaluation of a yoga based regimen for treatment of osteoarthritis of the hands. Journal of Rheumatology 21(12), 2341-2343. 12-1994.

Abstract: OBJECTIVE. Yoga and relaxation techniques have traditionally been used by non medical practitioners to help alleviate musculoskeletal symptoms. The objective of this study was to collect controlled observations of the effect of yoga on the hands of patients with osteoarthritis (OA). METHODS. Patients with OA of the hands were randomly assigned to receive either the yoga program or no therapy. Yoga techniques were supervised by one instructor once/week for 8 weeks. Variables assessed were pain, strength, motion, joint circumference, tenderness, and hand function using the Stanford Hand Assessment questionnaire. RESULTS. The yoga treated group improved significantly more than the control group in pain during activity, tenderness and finger range of motion. Other trends also favored the yoga program. CONCLUSION. This yoga derived program was effective in providing relief in hand OA. Further studies are needed to compare this with other treatments and to examine long term effects.

Wilson, A. F., Honsberger, R., Chiu, J. T., and Novey, H. S. Transcendental meditation and asthma. Respiration 32(1), 74-80. 1975.

Abstract: A 6-month study with crossover at 3 months was designed to evaluate the possible beneficial effects of transcendental meditation upon bronchial asthma. 21 patients kept daily diaries of symptoms and medications and answered questionnaires at the end of the study and 6 months later. Other measurements included physician evaluation, pulmonary function testing, and galvanic skin resistance. The results indicated that transcendental meditation is a useful adjunct in treating asthma.

Tandon, M. K. Adjunct treatment with yoga in chronic severe airways obstruction. Thorax 33(4), 514-517. 8-1978.

Abstract: Eleven patients with severe chronic airways obstruction were given training in yogic breathing exercises and postures. A matched group of 11 patients were given physiotherapy breathing exercises. Both groups of patients were followed up at monthly intervals for nine months with pulmonary function tests, tests of exercise tolerance, and inquiry into their symptoms. After training in yoga the mean maximum work increased significantly by 60.55 kpm; whereas no such rise occurred after training in physiotherapy. This objective improvement was associated with symptomatic improvement in a significantly higher number of patients given training in yoga.

Nagarathna, R. and Nagendra, H. R. Yoga for bronchial asthma: a controlled study. British Medical Journal Clinical Research Ed . 291(6502), 1077-1079. 10-1985.

Abstract: Fifty three patients with asthma underwent training for two weeks in an integrated set of yoga exercises, including breathing exercises, suryanamaskar, yogasana (physical postures), pranayama (breath slowing techniques), dhyana (meditation), and a devotional session, and were told to practise these exercises for 65 minutes daily. They were then compared with a control group of 53 patients with asthma matched for age, sex, and type and severity of asthma, who continued to take their usual drugs. There was a significantly greater improvement in the group who practiced yoga in the weekly number of attacks of asthma, scores for drug treatment, and peak flow rate. This study shows the efficacy of yoga in the long term management of bronchial asthma, but the physiological basis for this beneficial effect needs to be examined in more detail.

Nagendra, H. R. and Nagarathna, R. An integrated approach of yoga therapy for bronchial asthma: a 3-54-month prospective study. Journal of Asthma 23(3), 123-137. 1986.

Abstract: After an initial integrated yoga training program of 2 to 4 weeks, 570 bronchial asthmatics were followed up for 3 to 54 months. The training consisted of yoga practices--yogasanas, Pranayama, meditation, and kriyas--and theory of yoga. Results show highly significant improvement in most of the specific parameters. The regular practitioners showed the greatest improvement. Peak expiratory flow rate (PFR) values showed significant movement of patients toward normalcy after yoga, and 72, 69, and 66% of the patients have stopped or reduced parenteral, oral, and cortisone medication, respectively. These results establish the long-term efficacy of the integrated approach of yoga therapy in the management of bronchial asthma.

Jain, S. C., Rai, L., Valecha, A., Jha, U. K., Bhatnagar, S. O., and Ram, K. Effect of yoga training on exercise tolerance in adolescents with childhood asthma. Journal of Asthma 28(6), 437-442. 1991.

Abstract: Forty six young asthmatics with a history of childhood asthma were admitted for yoga training. Effects of training on resting pulmonary functions, exercise capacity, and exercise-induced bronchial lability index were measured. Yoga training resulted in a significant increase in pulmonary function and exercise capacity. A follow-up study spanning two years showed a good response with reduced symptom score and drug requirements in these subjects. It is concluded that yoga training is beneficial for young asthmatics.

Jain, S. C. and Talukdar, B. Evaluation of yoga therapy programme for patients of bronchial asthma. Singapore Medical Journal 34(4), 306-308. 8-1993.

Abstract: A study of the effect of yoga therapy programme on 46 indoor patients of chronic bronchial asthma on exercise capacity, pulmonary functions and blood gases was conducted. Exercise capacity was measured by 3 tests: (i) 12 min walk test (12-md); (ii) physical fitness index (PFI) by modified Harvard step test; and (iii) Exercise-Liability index (ELI). Yoga therapy programme resulted in a significant increase in the pulmonary functions and exercise tolerance. A one-year follow-up study showed a good to fair response with reduced symptoms score and drug requirements in these subjects. It is concluded that yoga therapy is beneficial for bronchial asthma.

Khanam, A. A., Sachdeva, U., Guleria, R., and Deepak, K. K. Study of pulmonary and autonomic functions of asthma patients after yoga training. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 40(4), 318-324. 10-1996.

Abstract: "The concept of yoga is helpful for the treatment of Bronchial Asthma", has created a great interest in the medical research field. In order to investigate whether autonomic functions and pulmonary functions are improved in asthma patients after short term yoga training, a study was conducted with nine diagnosed bronchial asthma patients. Yoga training was given for seven days in a camp in Adhyatma Sadhna Kendra, New Delhi. The autonomic function tests to measure the parasympathetic reactivity (Deep Breathing test, Valsalva Manouever), Sympathetic reactivity (Hand Grip test, Cold Pressure test), and pulmonary function tests FVC, FEV1, PEFR, PIF, BHT and CE were recorded before and after yoga training. The resting heart rate after yoga training (P < 0.05) was significantly decreased (89.55 +/- 18.46/min to 76.22 +/- 16.44/min). The sympathetic reactivity was reduced following yoga training as indicated by significant (P < 0.01) reduction in DBP after HGT. There was no change in parasympathetic reactivity. The FVC, FEV1, PEFR did not show any significant change. The PIF (P < 0.01), BHT (P < 0.01) and CE (P < 0.01) showed significant improvement. The results closely indicated the reduction in sympathetic reactivity and improvement in the pulmonary ventilation by way of relaxation of voluntary inspiratory and expiratory muscles. The "comprehensive yogic life style change programme for patients of Bronchial Asthma" have shown significant benefit even within a short period.

Grover, P., Varma, V. K., Pershad, D., and Verma, S. K. Construction of a scale for the measurement of attitudes to yoga (a preliminary report). Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology 10(2), 173-378. 9-1983.

Abstract: Describes the development and evaluation of a 14-item Likert-type scale assessing attitudes toward yoga. the scale was standardized on 71 Ss-26 who regularly practiced yoga and 45 who did not (mean ages 32.85 and 30.67 yrs, respectively). Test-retest, validity, and discriminability data for the scale are presented.

Dhume, R. R. and Dhume, R. A. A comparative study of the driving effects of dextroamphetamine and yogic meditation on muscle control for the performance of balance on balance board. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 35(3), 191-194. 7-1991.

Abstract: The work is aimed to compare the relative strength of dextroamphetamine and yogic meditation on the performance of 3 different groups of medical students to concentrate on the task to balance on a balance board. Group A subjects were mediators, group B subjects were given orally 5 and 10 mg of dextroamphetamine in a capsule, 1 hr prior to the test. Group C subjects were given same capsule but with lactose in place of the drug (placebo). This last group served as a control for the study. The balance index was calculated taking into account their balance time and error score at each trial of 5 min duration showed that the performance of the group B (drug) had declined with overall percentile fall of 40.6% as compared to the performance of the controls (placebo) whereas, the performance of Group A (meditators) went on steadily and progressively increasing throughout the period of 10 trial days with overall percentile rise of 27.8%. The results were conclusive to confirm earlier reports that amphetamine is not of use for improvement of task rather, it deteriorates the task performance. Contrary to that, yogic meditation is of merit to achieve concentration for mental as well as physical task.

Blackwell, B., Bloomfield, S., Gartside, P., Robinson, A., Hanenson, I., Magenheim, Nidich, S., and Zigler, R. Transcendental meditation in hypertension. Individual response patterns. Lancet 1(7953), 223-226. 1-31-1976.

Abstract: Seven selected hypertensive patients were stabilized on drugs at a research clinic. Subjects learned transcendental meditation (T.M.), were seen weekly, and took their own blood pressure several times daily. After 12 weeks of T.M. six subjects showed psychological changes and reduced anxiety scores. Six subjects also showed significant reductions in home and four in clinic blood-pressures. Six months later four subjects continued to derive psychological benefit and two showed significant blood-pressure reductions attributable to T.M. at home and clinic.

Clance, P. R., Mitchell, M., and Engelman, S. R. Body cathexis in children as a function of awareness training and yoga. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 9(1), 82-85. 1980.

Abstract: The intimate relationship between mind and body suggests that body image may strongly affect self-image. Low body cathexis has been correlated with low self-cathexis. Since these concepts apparently develop at an early age, the present study was designed to test a means of increasing body satisfaction in children. 12 3rd graders, 10 girls and 2 boys, who demonstrated low body satisfaction and poor physical coordination, were randomly assigned to either an experimental group that received awareness training and yoga exercises or to a control group. A before-after 2-group design was used. Measures of body satisfaction were obtained from an adapted children's version of the Body Cathexis Scale and the Human Figures Drawing Test. Results indicate that experimental Ss increased in body satisfaction; no change was found in controls. If poor body image does indeed adversely affect self-image, this study has demonstrated an effective means of counteracting such negative influence.

Chohan, I. S., Nayar, H. S., Thomas, P., and Geetha, N. S. Influence of yoga on blood coagulation. Thrombosis & Haemostasis 51(2), 196-197. 4-30-1984.

Abstract: Yoga is known to induce beneficial effects on physiological, biochemical and mental functions in man. Its effects on blood coagulation are not known. A study was conducted in seven previously untrained male adults who underwent a combination of yogic exercises, daily for one hour, over a period of four months. Parameters of blood coagulation were estimated before and after the end of yoga training. The following changes were observed: Fibrinolytic activity increased significantly with a concomitant fall in fibrinogen; activated partial thromboplastin time and platelet aggregation time were prolonged; blood and plasma platelets showed a rise; and both haemoglobin and heamatocrit were raised at the end of the training. These findings suggest that yoga induces a state of blood hypocoagulability. The impact of yoga on prevention of cardiovascular and thrombotic disorders is obvious.

Bowman, A. J., Clayton, R. H., Murray, A., Reed, J. W., Subhan, M. M., and Ford, G. A. Effects of aerobic exercise training and yoga on the baroreflex in healthy elderly persons. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 27(5), 443-449. 5-1997.

Abstract: It is unclear whether the age-associated reduction in baroreflex sensitivity is modifiable by exercise training. The effects of aerobic exercise training and yoga, a non-aerobic control intervention, on the baroreflex of elderly persons was determined. Baroreflex sensitivity was quantified by the alpha-index, at high frequency (HF; 0.15-0.35 Hz, reflecting parasympathetic activity) and mid-frequency (MF; 0.05-0.15 Hz, reflecting sympathetic activity as well), derived from spectral and cross-spectral analysis of spontaneous fluctuations in heart rate and blood pressure. Twenty-six (10 women) sedentary, healthy, normotensive elderly (mean 68 years, range 62-81 years) subjects were studied. Fourteen (4 women) of the sedentary elderly subjects completed 6 weeks of aerobic training, while the other 12 (6 women) subjects completed 6 weeks of yoga. Heart rate decreased following yoga (69 +/- 8 vs. 61 +/- 7 min-1, P < 0.05) but not aerobic training (66 +/- 8 vs. 63 +/- 9 min-1, P = 0.29). VO2 max increased by 11% following yoga (P < 0.01) and by 24% following aerobic training (P < 0.01). No significant change in alpha MF (6.5 +/- 3.5 vs. 6.2 +/- 3.0 ms mmHg-1, P = 0.69) or alpha HF (8.5 +/- 4.7 vs. 8.9 +/- 3.5 ms mmHg-1, P = 0.65) occurred after aerobic training. Following yoga, alpha HF (8.0 +/- 3.6 vs. 11.5 +/- 5.2 ms mmHg-1, P < 0.01) but not alpha MF (6.5 +/- 3.0 vs. 7.6 +/- 2.8 ms mmHg-1, P = 0.29) increased. Short-duration aerobic training does not modify the alpha-index at alpha MF or alpha HF in healthy normotensive elderly subjects. alpha HF but not alpha MF increased following yoga, suggesting that these parameters are measuring distinct aspects of the baroreflex that are separately modifiable.

Garfinkel, M.S., Singhal, A., Katz, W.A., Allan, D.A., Reshetar, R. & Schumacher, H.R.J. (1998). Yoga-based intervention for carpal tunnel syndrome: a randomized trial. Jama, 280, 1601-1603.

Abstract: Carpal tunnel syndrome is a common complication of repetitive activities and causes significant morbidity. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a yoga-based regimen for relieving symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome. Forty-two employed or retired individuals with carpal tunnel syndrome (median age, 523 years; range, 24-77 years were assigned to the yoga group receiving a yoga-based intervention consisting of 11 yoga postures designed for strengthening, stretching, and balancing each joint in the upper body along with relaxation given twice weekly for 8 weeks. Patients in the control group were offered a wrist splint to supplement their current treatment. Changes from baseline to 8 weeks in grip strength, pain intensity, sleep disturbance, Phalen sign, and Tinel sign, and in median nerve motor and sensory conduction time. In this preliminary study, a yoga-based regimen was more effective than wrist splinting or no treatment in relieving some symptoms and signs of carpal tunnel syndrome.

Jevning, R., Wilson, A. F., and Davidson, J. M. Adrenocortical activity during meditation. Hormones & Behavior 10(1), 54-60. 2-1978.

Abstract: We studied acute plasma cortisol and testosterone concentration changes during the practice known as "transcendental meditation" (TM) and during control rest. Three groups of normal, young adult volunteers were studied: a group of controls, these same controls restudied as practitioners after 3 to 4 months of TM practice, and a group of long-term, regular TM practitioners (3 to 5 years of practice). No change was found in controls during rest. Cortisol declined, but not significantly, in restudied controls, while cortisol decreased significantly in long-term practitioners during meditation and remained somewhat low afterward. No change in testosterone concentration was noted during either rest or TM. Apparently, the practice of TM becomes associated with psychophysiologic response(s) which acutely inhibit pituitary-adrenal activity.

Harte, J. L., Eifert, G. H., and Smith, R. The effects of running and mediation on beta-endorphin, corticotropin-releasing hormone and cortisol in plasma, and on mood. Biological Psychology 40(3), 251-265. 6-1995.

Abstract: The relations between three hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis, beta-endorphin (beta-EP), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and cortisol, and mood change were examined in 11 elite runners and 12 highly trained meditators matched in age, sex, and personality. Despite metabolic differences between running and meditation, we predicted that mood change after these activities would be similar when associated with similar hormonal change. Compared to pre-test and control values, mood was elevated after both activities but not significantly different between the two groups at post-test. There were significant elevations of beta-EP and CRH after running and of CRH after meditation, but no significant differences in CRH increases between groups. CRH was correlated with positive mood changes after running and mediation. Cortisol levels were generally high but erratic in both groups. We conclude that positive affect is associated with plasma CRH immunoreactivity which itself is significantly associated with circulating beta-EP supporting a role for CRH in the release of beta-EP. Increased CRH immunoreactivity following meditation indicates, however, that physical exercise is not an essential requirement for CRH release.

Khumar, S. S. Kaur P. Kaur S. Effectiveness of Shavasana on depression among university students. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology 20(2), 82-87. 9-1993.

Abstract: Examined the effectiveness of Shavasana (a type of yoga exercise) as a therapeutic technique to alleviate depression. 50 female university students were diagnosed with severe depression; 25 were subjected to 30 sessions of Shavasana, and 25 served as controls. Results reveal that (1) Shavasana was an effective technique for alleviating depression and (2) continuation of the treatment for a longer period resulted in a significantly increased positive change in the Ss.

Jain, S. C., Uppal, A., Bhatnagar, S. O., and Talukdar, B. A study of response pattern of non-insulin dependent diabetics to yoga therapy. Diabetes Research & Clinical Practice 19(1), 69-74. 1-1993.

Abstract: Changes in blood glucose and glucose tolerance by oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) after 40 days of yoga therapy in 149 non-insulin-dependent diabetics (NIDDM) were investigated. The response to yoga in these subjects was categorized according to a severity scale index (SSI) based on area index total (AIT) under OGTT curve. One hundred and four patients showed a fair to good response to the yoga therapy. There was a significant reduction in hyperglycemia and AIT with decrease in oral hypoglycemia and AIT with decrease in oral hypoglycemic drugs required for maintenance of normoglycemia. It is concluded that yoga, a simple and economical therapy, may be considered a beneficial adjuvant for NIDDM patients.

Corby, J. C., Roth, W. T., Zarcone, V. P. Jr, and Kopell, B. S. Psychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yoga meditation. Archives of General Psychiatry 35(5), 571-577. 5-1978.

Abstract: Autonomic and electroencephalographic (EEG) correlates of Tantric Yoga meditation were studied in three groups of subjects as they progressed from normal consciousness into meditation. Groups differed in their level of meditation proficiency. Measures of skin resistance, heart rate, respiration, autonomic orienting responses, resting EEG, EEG alpha and theta frequencies, sleep-scored EEG, averaged evoked responses, and subjective experience were employed. Unlike most previously reported meditation studies, proficient meditators demonstrated increased autonomic activation during meditation while unexperienced meditators demonstrated autonomic relaxation. During meditation, proficient meditators demonstrated increased alpha and theta power, minimal evidence of EEG-defined sleep, and decreased autonomic orienting to external stimulation. An episode of sudden autonomic activation was observed that was characterized by the meditator as an approach to the Yogic ecstatic state of intense concentration. These findings challenge the current "relaxation" model of meditative states.

Narayan, R., Kamat, A., Khanolkar, M., Kamat, S., Desai, S. R., and Dhume, R. A. Quantitative evaluation of muscle relaxation induced by Kundalini yoga with the help of EMG integrator. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 34(4), 279-281. 10-1990.

Abstract: The present work is aimed to quantify the degree of relaxation of muscle under the effects of Kundalini Yoga with the help of EMG integrator. The data collected from 8 individuals (4 males 4 females) on the degree of muscle relaxation at the end of meditation revealed a significantly decreased muscle activity amounting to 58% of the basal level in both the sexes.

Panjwani, U., Gupta, H. L., Singh, S. H., Selvamurthy, W., and Rai, U. C. Effect of Sahaja yoga practice on stress management in patients of epilepsy. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 39(2), 111-116. 4-1995.

Abstract: An attempt was made to evaluate the effect of Sahaja yoga meditation in stress management in patients of epilepsy. The study was carried out on 32 patients of epilepsy who were randomly divided into 3 groups: group I subjects practiced Sahaja yoga meditation for 6 months, group II subjects practiced postural exercises mimicking Sahaja yoga and group III served as the epileptic control group. Galvanic skin resistance (GSR), blood lactate and urinary vinyl mandelic acid (U-VMA) were recorded at 0, 3 and 6 months. There were significant changes at 3 & 6 months as compared to 0 month values in GSR, blood lactate and U-VMA levels in group I subjects, but not in group II and group III subjects. The results indicate that reduction in stress following Sahaja yoga practice may be responsible for clinical improvement which had been earlier reported in patients who practiced Sahaja yoga.

Panjwani, U., Selvamurthy, W., Singh, S. H., Gupta, H. L., Thakur, L., and Rai, U. C. Effect of Sahaja yoga practice on seizure control & EEG changes in patients of epilepsy. Indian Journal of Medical Research 103, 165-172. 3-1996.

Abstract: The effect of Sahaja yoga meditation on seizure control and electroencephalographic alterations was assessed in 32 patients of idiopathic epilepsy. The subjects were randomly divided into 3 groups. Group I (n = 10) practiced Sahaja yoga for 6 months, Group II (n = 10) practiced exercises mimicking Sahaja yoga for 6 months and Group III (n = 12) served as the epileptic control group. Group I subjects reported a 62 per cent decrease in seizure frequency at 3 months and a further decrease of 86 per cent at 6 months of intervention. Power spectral analysis of EEG showed a shift in frequency from 0-8 Hz towards 8-20 Hz. The ratios of EEG powers in delta (D), theta (T), alpha (A) and beta (B) bands i.e., A/D, A/D + T, A/T and A + B/D + T were increased. Per cent D power decreased and per cent A increased. No significant changes in any of the parameters were found in Groups II and III, indicating that Sahaja yoga practice brings about seizure reduction and EEG changes. Sahaja yoga could prove to be beneficial in the management of patients of epilepsy.

Bera, T. K. and Rajapurkar, M. V. Body composition, cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power of yogic practitioner. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 37(3), 225-228. 7-1993.

Abstract: Forty male high school students, age 12-15 yrs, participated for a study of yoga in relation to body composition, cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power. The Ss were placed into two subsets viz., yoga group and control group. Body composition, cardiovascular endurance anaerobic power were measured using standard method. The duration of experiment was one year. The result of ANCOVA revealed that a significant improvement in ideal body weight, body density, cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power was observed as a result of yoga training. This study could not show significant change in body fat (midaxillary), skeletal diameters and most of the body circumferences. It was evident that some of the fat-folds (tricep, subscapular, suprailiac, umbilical, thigh and calf) and body circumferences (waist, umbilical and hip) were reduced significantly.

Raju, P. S., Madhavi, S., Prasad, K. V., Reddy, M. V., Reddy, M. E., Sahay, B. K., and Murthy, K. J. Comparison of effects of yoga & physical exercise in athletes. Indian Journal of Medical Research 100, 81-86. 8-1994.

Abstract: The effect of pranayama a controlled breathing practice, on exercise tests was studied in athletes in two phases; sub-maximal and maximal exercise tests. At the end of phase I (one year) both the groups (control and experimental) achieved significantly higher work rate and reduction in oxygen consumption per unit work. There was a significant reduction in blood lactate and an increase in P/L ratio in the experimental group, at rest. At the end of phase II (two years), the oxygen consumption per unit work was found to be significantly reduced and the work rate significantly increased in the experimental group. Blood lactate decreased significantly at rest in the experimental group only. Pyruvate and pyruvate-lactate ratio increased significantly in both the groups after exercise and at rest in the experimental group. The results in both phases showed that the subjects who practiced pranayama could achieve higher work rates with reduced oxygen consumption per unit work and without increase in blood lactate levels. The blood lactate levels were significantly low at rest.

Vasudevan, A., Kumariah, V., Mishra, H., and Balodhi, J. P. Yogic meditation in tension headache. NIMHANS Journal 12(1), 69-73. 1-1994.

Abstract: 7 Ss with tension headache were taught and underwent 30 sessions of yogic meditation. Single group design with multiple assessment was used; pre, mid, and post assessments were made using psychophysiological measures. Results indicate no statistically significant reduction in the frontalis muscle tension and skin conductance, although clinically there was a decline. Statistically significant reduction in pain perception was observed. Yogic meditation was effective in reducing tension headache.

Latha, D. and Kaliappan, K. V. The efficacy of yoga therapy in the treatment of migraine and tension headaches. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology 13(2), 95-100. 7-1987.

Abstract: 20 patients (aged 16-55 yrs) with migraine and tension headaches were randomly assigned to yoga therapy (YT) or no therapy. YT Ss compared with controls showed a significant reduction in headache activity, medication intake, symptoms, and perceived stress, and they had a significant improvement in coping behavior. It is suggested that YT is superior to drug therapy in controlling headaches.

Latha, D and Kaliappan, K. V. Efficacy of yoga therapy in the management of headaches. Journal of Indian Psychology 10(1-2), 41-47. 1-1992.

Abstract: Investigated the effect of yoga as a therapeutic aid in the treatment of migraine and tension headaches in 20 patients. Ss were randomly assigned to 4 months of yoga therapy and no treatment control conditions. Ss in both groups were assessed for headache activity (in terms of frequency, duration, and intensity), sources of stress, coping patterns, and somatic symptoms before and after the therapeutic intervention. There was significant reduction in the headache activity, medication intake, symptoms, and stress perception for the therapy group. They also showed significant improvement in coping behavior.

Schell, F. J., Allolio, B., and Schonecke, O. W. Physiological and psychological effects of Hatha-Yoga exercise in healthy women. International Journal of Psychosomatics 41(1-4), 46-52. 1994.

Abstract: Hatha-Yoga has become increasingly popular in western countries as a method for coping with stress. However, little is known about the physiological and psychological effects of yoga practice. We measured heart rate, blood pressure, the hormones cortisol, prolactin and growth hormone and certain psychological parameters in a yoga practicing group and a control group of young female volunteers reading in a comfortable position during the experimental period. There were no substantial differences between the groups concerning endocrine parameters and blood pressure. The course of heart rate was significantly different, the yoga group had a decrease during the yoga practice. Significant differences between both groups were found in psychological parameters. In the personality inventory the yoga group showed markedly higher scores in life satisfaction and lower scores in excitability, aggressiveness, openness, emotionality and somatic complaints. Significant differences could also be observed concerning coping with stress and the mood at the end of the experiment. The yoga group had significant higher scores in high spirits and extravertedness.

Patel, C. Yoga and biofeedback in the management of 'stress' in hypertensive patients. Clinical Science & Molecular Medicine - Supplement 2, 171s-174s. 6-1975.

Abstract: 1. Psychophysical relaxation exercises based on yogic principles and reinforced by biofeedback instruments were used for behaviour modification in sixteen hypertensive subjects. 2. Preliminary studies indicated that their pressor response to emotional and physical stimuli became less exaggerated and less protracted compared with controls.

Patel, C. and North, W. R. Randomised controlled trial of yoga and bio-feedback in management of hypertension. Lancet 2(7925), 93-95. 7-1975.

Abstract: 34 hypertensive patients were assigned at random either to six weeks' treatment by yoga relaxation methods with bio-feedback or to placebo therapy (general relaxation). Both groups showed a reduction in blood-pressure (from 168/100 to 141/84 mm. Hg in the treated group and from 169/101 to 160/96 mm Hg in the control group). The difference was highly significant. The control group was then trained in yoga relaxation, and their blood-pressure fell to that of the other group (now used as controls).

Patel, C. 12-month follow-up of yoga and bio-feedback in the management of hypertension. Lancet 1(7898), 62-64. 1-11-1975.

Abstract: Twenty hypertensive patients treated by psychophysical relaxation exercises were followed up monthly for 12 months. Age and sex matched hypertensive controls were similarly followed up for 9 months. Statistically significant reductions in blood-pressure (BP) and antihypertensive drug requirements were satisfactorily maintained in the treatment group. Mere repetition of B.P. measurements and increased medical attention did not in themselves reduce B.P. significantly in control patients.

Uma, K., Nagendra, H. R., Nagarathna, R., Vaidehi, S., and Seethalakshmi, R. The integrated approach of yoga: a therapeutic tool for mentally retarded children: a one-year controlled study. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 33(Pt 5), 415-421. 10-1989.

Abstract: Ninety children with mental retardation of mild, moderate and severe degree were selected from four special schools in Bangalore, India. Forty-five children underwent yogic training for one academic year (5 h in every week) with an integrated set of yogic practices, including breathing exercises and meditation. They were compared before and after yogic training with a control group of 45 mentally retarded children matched for chronological age, sex, IQ, socio-economic status and socio environmental background who were not exposed to yoga training but continued their usual school routine during that period. There was highly significant improvement in the IQ and social adaptation parameters in the yoga group as compared to the control group. This study shows the efficacy of yoga as an effective therapeutic tool in the management of mentally retarded children.

Harvey, J. R. The effect of yogic breathing exercises on mood. Journal of the American Society of Psychosomatic Dentistry and Medicine 30(2), 39-48. 1983.

Abstract: Reviews the importance of breath in relation to achieving physiological self-control in behavioral therapies and in its relation to emotional state in Gestalt and Reichian psychology. Several Eastern traditions also emphasize the importance of breath regulation in achieving emotional self-control. In this study, 6 Ss (aged 20-55 yrs) participated in a 4-wk class of yogic breathing exercises, 6 Ss (aged 22-35 yrs) took a 6-wk on the philosophy of meditation, and 8 Ss (aged 25-48 yrs) took a course in psychology. Ss who learned breathing exercises showed significant changes on several dimensions of mood, (including the Profile Mood States), including increased vigor and decreased tension, fatigue and depression relative to Ss in control groups. Results suggest that yogic breathing exercises positively affect mood and that they have clinical potential as a self-control technique for improving and stabilizing affective states.

Berger, B. G. and Owen, D. R. Mood alteration with yoga and swimming: aerobic exercise may not be necessary. Perceptual & Motor Skills 75(3 Pt 2), 1331-1343. 12-1992.

Abstract: The mood benefits of Hatha yoga and swimming, two activities that differ greatly in aerobic training benefits, were examined. College students (N = 87) in two swimming classes, a yoga class, and a lecture-control class completed mood and personality inventories before and after class on three occasions. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated that both yoga participants (n = 22) and swimmers (n = 37) reported greater decreases in scores on Anxiety, Confusion, Tension, and Depression than did the control students (n = 28). The consistent mood benefits of yoga supported our earlier observation that the exercise need not be aerobic to be associated with mood enhancement. However, underlying and causal mechanisms remain uncertain. Among the men, the acute decreases in Tension, Fatigue, and Anger after yoga were significantly greater than those after swimming. Yoga may be even more beneficial than swimming for men who personally select to participate. The women reported fairly similar mood benefits after swimming and yoga. It seems that aerobic exercise may not be necessary to facilitate the mood benefits. Also, students with greater mood changes attended class more regularly than those who reported fewer psychological benefits. Maximizing the immediate psychological benefits of exercise might be one way to encourage adults to be physically active.

Wood, C. Mood change and perceptions of vitality: a comparison of the effects of relaxation, visualization and yoga. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 86(5), 254-258. 5-1993.

Abstract: The effects of three different procedures, relaxation, visualization and yogic breathing and stretch on perceptions of physical and mental energy and on positive and negative mood states have been assessed in a group of normal volunteers (N = 71, age range 21-76). Stretching produced a significantly greater increase in perceptions of mental and physical energy and feelings of alertness and enthusiasm than the other two procedures (P < 0.5). Relaxation made subjects significantly more sleepy and sluggish immediately after the session than stretching (P < 0.05). Visualization made them more sluggish but less content than stretching (P < 0.05) and more upset than relaxation after the second session (P < 0.05). Thus, a 30 min programme of yogic stretch and breathing exercises which is simple to learn and which can be practiced even by the elderly had a markedly 'invigorating' effect on perceptions of both mental and physical energy and increased high positive mood. A more extensive investigation is planned to establish whether such a programme can readily be incorporated into everyday life, and with what long-term results.

Kabat-Zinn, J. An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: theoretical considerations and preliminary results. General Hospital Psychiatry 4(1), 33-47. 4-1982.

Abstract: The practice of mindfulness meditation was used in a 10-week Stress Reduction and Relaxation Program to train chronic pain patients in self-regulation. The meditation facilitates an attentional stance towards proprioception known as detached observation. This appears to cause an "uncoupling " of the sensory dimension of the pain experience from the affective/evaluative alarm reaction and reduce the experience of suffering via cognitive reappraisal. Data are presented on 51 chronic pain patients who had not improved with traditional medical care. The dominant pain categories were low back, neck and shoulder, and headache. Facial pain, angina pectoris, noncoronary chest pain, and GI pain were also represented. At 10 weeks, 65% of the patients showed a reduction of greater than or equal to 33% in the mean total Pain Rating Index (Melzack) and 50% showed a reduction of greater than or equal to 50%. Similar decreases were recorded on other pain indices and in the number of medical symptoms reported. Large and significant reductions in mood disturbance and psychiatric symptomatology accompanied these changes and were relatively stable on follow-up. These improvements were independent of the pain category. We conclude that this form of meditation can be used as the basis for an effective behavioral program in self-regulation for chronic pain patients. Key features of the program structure, and the limitations of the present uncontrolled study are discussed.

Telles, S., Nagarathna, R., Nagendra, H. R., and Desiraju, T. Physiological changes in sports teachers following 3 months of training in Yoga. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 47(10), 235-238. 10-1993.

Abstract: 1. This report shows that in a group of 40 physical education teachers who already had an average of 8.9 years physical training, 3 months of yogic training produced significant improvement in general health (in terms of body weight and BP reduction and improved lung functions). 2. There was also evidence of decreased autonomic arousal and more of psychophysiological relaxation (heart rate and respiratory rate reduction), and improved somatic steadiness (decreased errors in the steadiness test). 3. The changes at the end of 3 months in volar GSR in different directions (increase/decrease/no change), depending on the initial values, suggests that practicing yoga may help to bring about a balance in different autonomic functions, so that functioning is optimized.

Dostaleck, C. Physiological bases of yoga techniques in the prevention of diseases. CIANS-ISBM Satellite Conference Symposium: Lifestyle changes in the prevention and treatment of disease (1992, Hanover, Germany). Homeostasis in Health and Disease 35(4-5), 205-208. 11-1994.

Abstract: Discusses possible physiological mechanisms of hatha-yogic exercises, including changes in the intensity and distribution of excitation and inhibition in the brain, habituation of reflexogenic areas, and modification of the rhythmicity of the functions. Other possible mechanisms include attainment of homeostasis of regulations by disbalancing them, classical conditioned reflex, restricted conciousness, and shifting of vegetative balance toward a relative parasympaticotony. Hatha yoga can be used for prevention and therapy of psychosomatic diseases, rehabilitation (both orthopedic and visceral), and research of physiological regulations. It includes psychohygienic and autopsychotherapeutic approaches and, properly practiced, poses no risk.

Grover, P., Varma, V. K., Verma, S. K., and Pershad, D. Factors influencing treatment acceptance in neurotic patients referred for yoga therapy: An exploratory study. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 31(3), 250-257. 7-1989.

Abstract: Administered such measures as the Amritsar Depressive Inventory (G. Singh et al, 1974), a psychiatric disability scale, and a yoga attitude scale to 186 neurotic patients (aged 18-45 yrs), who were consequently assigned to 3 treatments (yoga therapy, yogic relaxation, and chemotherapy). A comparison was made of those Ss who completed 4-6 wks of treatment with those who dropped out before completing the treatment in the yoga group. The dropouts and non-dropouts were comparable on sociodemographic and clinical variables. They were also similar with regard to their attitude toward yoga. The only factor that distinguished the 2 groups was the severity of illness at intake. Ss who continued treatment had significantly higher ratings of the severity of illness. Treatment failure was not the main reason for dropout.

Prakasamma, M. and Bhaduri, A. A study of yoga as a nursing intervention in the care of patients with pleural effusion. Journal of Advanced Nursing 9(2), 127-133. 3-1984.

Abstract: Yogic breathing as a method of re-expansion of lungs in patients with pleural effusion was studied. Ten patients with pleural effusion practiced alternate nostril breathing for 20 days after aspiration of fluid. An equal number matched for age and smoking habits underwent routine physiotherapy of the hospital for the same period. Lung function was measured: before aspiration; immediately after aspiration; and, 5, 10, 15 and 20 days after aspiration. The FVC, FEV1, MVV, PEFR, CE and RS, were used to measure lung function. The difference between the two groups in the gain in lung expansion as assessed by the above measures was tested for significance with appropriate nonparametric statistical tests at 0.1 level of significance. The results revealed that the patients practicing Pranayama demonstrated a quicker re-expansion of the lungs in most of the measures of lung function. The findings are discussed in relation to implications for nursing care.

Rai, L., Ram, K., Kant, U., Madan, S. K., and Sharma, S. K. Energy expenditure and ventilatory responses during Siddhasana--a yogic seated posture. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 38(1), 29-33. 1-1994.

Abstract: Reports of energy expenditure and ventilatory responses to yogic seated posture of Siddhasana are lacking in literature. Various cardio-ventilatory responses were studied in states of the horizontal supine, chair-sitting and Siddhasana. It was observed that sitting in Siddhasana posture was characterised by greater minute ventilation, larger tidal volume, higher oxygen consumption, greater CO2 elimination, higher heart frequency greater oxygen pulse and lesser as compared with other two postures. These observations suggest that Siddhasana is a mild type of exercise and may have its application in conditions of low cardio-respiratory reserves especially in individuals in whom heavy exercises are contra-indicated.

Makwana, K., Khirwadkar, N., and Gupta, H. C. Effect of short term yoga practice on ventilatory function tests. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 32(3), 202-208. 7-1988.

Abstract: Twenty five normal male volunteers undergoing a ten weeks course in the practice of yoga have been studied by some parameters of ventilatory functions tests. The observations recorded at the end of ten weeks of the course have shown improved ventilatory functions in the form of lowered respiratory rate, increased forced vital capacity, FEV1, maximum breathing capacity and breath holding time, while tidal volume and %FEV1, did not reveal any significant change. Thus, a combined practice of yoga seems to be beneficial on respiratory efficiency.

Joshi, L. N., Joshi, V. D., and Gokhale, L. V. Effect of short term 'Pranayam' practice on breathing rate and ventilatory functions of lung. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 36(2), 105-108. 4-1992.

Abstract: Thirty three normal male and forty two normal female subjects, of average age of 18.5 years, underwent six weeks course in 'Pranayam' and their ventilatory lung functions were studied before and after this practice. They had improved ventilatory functions in the form of lowered respiratory rate (RR), and increases in the forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume at the end of 1st second (FEV1%), maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV), peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR-lit/sec), and prolongation of breath holding time.